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Linguistics: An Advanced Course Book
(A textbook for graduate students)
Edited by
Hu Zhuanglin (Peking University)
Jiang Wangqi (Peking University)
Beijing: Peking University Press, 2002
2005-07-26 8:36:11

Chapter 1. Linguistics--A pilot science 1
[Li Zhanzi] <Nanjing Institute of International Relations>
1.1 Why study linguistics? 1
1.2 What is language?--Defining the object of study 2
1.3 Origin o flanguage 3
1.4 Design features of language 5
1.4.1 Arbitrariness 5
1.4.2 Duality 10
1.4.3 Creativity 11
1.4.4 Dsplacement 12
1.5 Animal communication systems, gesture and other language forms 12
1.6 Perspectives of language studies 15
1.6.1 Language as innate human knowledge 16
1.6.2 Langugae as a fixed code 17
1.6.3 Language as a system 17
1.6.4 Language as interaction 19
1.7 Functions of language 20
1.7.1 Theories of the functions of language 20
1.7.2 Referential function 22
1.7.3 Interpersonal funciton 23
1.7.4 Performative funciton 24
1.7.5 Emotive funciton 24
1.7.6 Phatic communion 25
1.7.7 Recreational function 26
1.7.8 Metalingual function 27
1.8 Important distinctions in linguistics 27
1.8.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptive 27
1.8.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic 30
1.8.3 Language and parole 31
1.8.4 Competence and performance 32
1.8.5 Actual and potential linguistic choice 34
1.8.6 Etic vs. emic 34
1.8.7 Formalism vs. functionalism 36
1.9 Data of linguistics 38
1.10 Stratus and prospect of linguistics 40

Chapter 2. Phonetics 45
[Shi Baohui] <Beijing Forestry University>
2.1 The study of speech sounds 45
   2.1.1 Aspects of the study of speech sounds 45
   2.1.2 Speech production and perception 46
2.2 Speech organs 47
2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription 51
   2.3.1 Segments and divergences 51
   2.3.2 Phonetic transcription and the IPA 52
   2.3.3 Consonants and vowels 55
2.4 Consonants 55
   2.4.1 Manners of articulation 56
   2.4.2 Places of articulation 59
   2.4.3 The consonants of English 61
2.5 Vowels 62
   2.5.1 The criteria of vowel description 62
   2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowels 63
   2.5.3 The change of vowel quality 66
2.6 The vowels of English 66
2.7 Coarticulation, broad ad narrow transcriptions 74
   2.7.1 Coarticulation 74
   2.7.2 Broad and narrow transcriptions 75
2.8 Syllables 76
   2.8.1 The syllable structure 76
   2.8.2 Sonority scale 77
   2.8.3 The problems with the sonority scale 79
   2.8.4 Syllabification and the maximal onset principle 79
2.9 Stress 80
   2.9.1 Stressed and unstressed syllables 80
   2.9.2 Stress in English 80
   2.9.3 Primary and secondary stresses 81
   2.9.4 Sentece stress 81
2.10 Pitch, intonation, and tone 82
   2.10.1 Pitch 82
   2.10.2 Intonation 83
   2.10.3 Tone 86
   2.10.4 Stress, tone, and pitch accent language 87
References 87

Chapter 3. Phonology 90
[Shi Baohui] <Beijing Forestry University>
3.1 Phonological analysis 90
3.2 Phonemes and allophones 91
   3.2.1 Minimal pairs 91
   3.2.2 The phoneme theory 93
   3.2.3 Allophones 94
3.3 Phonological processes 97
   3.3.1 Assimilation 97
   3.3.2 Phonological processes and phonological rules 98
   3.3.3 Rule ordering 100
3.4 Distinctive features 103
   3.4.1 The theory of distinctive features 103
   3.4.2 A list of disitnctive features 105
3.5 Optimality theory 109
3.6 Conclusion 113
References 114

Chapter 4. Morphology 116
[Zhang Weiyou] <Central China Normal University>
4.1 Introduction 116
4.2 Morphemes, morphs and allomorphs 117
4.3 Classifying morphemes 119
   4.3.1 Free versus bound morphemes 120
   4.3.2 Derivational versus inflectional morphemes 121
   4.3.3 Lexical versus grammatical morphemes 122
4.4 Identifying morphemes 123
4.5 Allomorphy 125
   4.5.1 Phonological conditioning 125
   4.5.2 Morphological conditioning 126
   4.5.3 Stylistic conditioning 128
4.6 Word, word-form and lexeme 128
4.7 Morphology and word-formation 130
   4.7.1. Root, stem and base 130
   4.7.2 Affix 132
   4.7.3 Hierarchical structure of words 133
   4.7.4 Productivity 136
   4.7.5 Word-formation processes 137
4.8 Approaches and problems 141
   4.8.1 Item and arrangement 142
   4.8.2 Item and process 142
   4.8.3 Word and paradigm 143
   4.8.4 Character-based approach 143
References 145

Chapter 5. Generative syntax 148
[He Wei] <Peking University>
5.1 Generative grammar: Some basic assumptions 148
   5.1.1 Generative grammar and Chomsky 148
   5.1.2 E-language and I-language 149
   5.1.3 Criteria of adequacy 150
   5.1.4 The development of generative grammar: Three theoretical models 152
5.2 Phrase structure grammar 152
   5.2.1 Rule-generated language: A simple example 152
   5.2.2 Context free phrase structure rules 154
   5.2.3 Transformation 157
   5.2.4 Subcategorization 159
5.3 Projection from lexicon 162
   5.3.1 Some consequential difficulties with phrase structural rules   164
   5.3.2 Projection principle 164
   5.3.3 The extended projection principle 166
   5.3.4 Adjunction 170
   5.3.5 X-bar schema 172
   5.3.6 Extending X-bar schema to functional categories 175
   5.3.7 Theta-theory 182
   5.3.8 Movement and trace 187
   5.3.9 Case theory 191
   5.3.10 Types of syntactic relations 193
5.4 The minimalist approach 203
   5.4 1 Merge /Move 204
   5.4.2 Minimizing to bare essentials 208
   5.4.3 Checking and checking theory 210
   5.4.4 VP shells 219
References 225

Chapter 6. Functional syntax 228
[Qian Jun] <Peking University>
6.1 Vilem Mathesius 228
   6.1.1 Subject 228
   6.1.2 Predication 230
   6.1.3 Object 234
   6.1.4 Subject-predicate relations 239
   6.1.5 Object-predicate relations 241
   6.1.6 Functional sentence perspective (FSP) 242
6.2 Frantisek Danes 244
   6.2.1 A three-level approach to syntax 244
   6.2.2 Sentence patterns and predicate classes 248
6.3 Michael Halliday 257
   6.3.1 Processes 258
   6.3.2 Participants 261
   6.3.3 Circumstances 267
6.4 Summary 272
References 272

Chapter 7. Semantics 278
[Jiang Wangqi] <Peking University>
7.1 Introduction 278
7.2 Meanings of meaning 279
7.3 The referential theory 281
7.4 Sense relations 283
   7.4.1 Synonymy 284
   7.4.2 Antonymy 284
   7.4.3 Hyponymy 289
7.5 Componential analysis 291
7.6 Sentence meaning 294
   7.6.1 An integrated theory 295
   7.6.2 Logical semantics 300
   7.6.3 Montague semantics 307
References 314

Chapter 8. Linguistic comparison 316
[Zhang Delu] <Qingdao University of Oceanic Studies>
8.1. Introduction 316
8.2 Comaprative and historical linguistics 317
   8.2.1 The emergence of the branch of linguistics 317
   8.2.2 The stages of development 317
8.3 Typological comparison 339
   8.3.1 Linguistic typology and linguistic universals 339
   8.3.2 Typological classification 342
   8.3.3 Implicational universals 346
   8.3.4 Functional typological classification 350
References 356

Chapter 9. Language, culture, and society 358
[Yang Yonglin] <Qinghua University>
9.1 Introduciton 358
9.2 Language and culture 359
   9.2.1 How does language relate to culture? 360
   9.2.2 What more should we know about the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis? 365
   9.2.3 What evidence can we give to show the close relationship between language and culture? 370
   9.2.4 To what extent do we need culture in our linguistic study? 371
9.3 Language and society 372
   9.3.1 How does language relate to society? 374
   9.3.2 What do we mean by a situationally and socially varionist perspective? 374
   9.3.3 What more should we know about sociolinguisitcs? 377
   9.3.4 What implications can we get from sociolinguistics? 381
9.4 Sociolinguisitcs and language teaching 383
   9.4.1 How are some leading sociolinguistic theories related to language teaching? 384
   9.4.2 Why should we teach cultural things in our classroom? 390
   9.4.3 What should we teach about culture in our classroom? 394
   9.4.4 What contributions has sociolinguistics provided to the field of langauge teaching? 396
9.5 Summary 397
References 398

Chapter 10. Psycholinguistics 405
[Suo Yuzhu] <Peking University>
10.1 Introduction 405
10.2 Language comprehension 407
    10.2.1 Modularity 407
    10.2.2 Speech perception 409
    10.2.3 Lexical access 410
    10.2.4 Sentence processing 411
    10.2.5 Discourse and text comprehension 416
    10.2.6 The underlying elements of reading 420
10.3 Language production 427
     10.3.1 From concept to expression 428
     10.3.2 Implcations from error data 430
10.4 Illustrated experiments: A comparative study of understanding Eglish and chinese texts 432
     10.4.1 Experimental design 432
     10.4.2 Hypothesis and prediction 433
     10.4.3 Methods 433
     10.4.4 Discussions on hypothesis 436
References 438

Chapter 11. Pragmatics 443
[Jiang Wangqi] <Peking University>
11.1 Introduction 443
11.2 Speech act theory 444
     11.2.1 Performatives and constatives 444
     11.2.2 A theory of the illocutionary act 447
     11.2.3 Classes of illocutionary acts   449
     11.2.4 Searle's revisions 451
11.3 The classical theory of implicature 456
     11.3.1 The Cooperative principle 456
     11.3.2 Violation of the maxims 459
     11.3.3 Characterisitcs of implicature 462
11.4 Post-Gricean developments 466
     11.4.1 Relevance theory 466
     11.4.2 The Q-and R-principles 473
     11.4.3 The Q-, I- and M-principles 479
References 487

Chapter 12. Stylistics 489
[Liu Shisheng] <Qinghua University>
12.1 Introduction 489
     12.1.1 Chinese stylistics 489
     12.1.2 Western stylistics 490
     12.1.3 Chinese studies of Western stylistics 490
12.2 Style and stylistics 491
     12.2.1 What is style? 491
     12.2.2 For whom the stylistician works? Writer? Text? Reader? Context? Or meaning? 492
12.3 Style as rhetoric: the initial stage of stylistics 493
12.4 One style or several styles? 495
12.5 Aspects of style: the writer -- style as writer's individual / personal singularities 498
     12.5.1 Buffon: Style is the man himself. 498
     12.5.2 Spitzer: The philological circle and its methods 500
12.6 Aspects of style: te text --style as linguisitc sameness (structural equivalence) 502
     12.6.1 Jakobson's projection theory: Style as structural equivalence 502
     12.6.2 Ohmann's structural tranfromation theory: Style as transformation 504
12.7 Aspects of style: the text --style as linguistic difference 507
     12.7.1 Types of deviation (Leech, 1969) 507
     12.7.2 The significance of deviation 511
12.8 Aspects of style: the reader -- style as reader's response 511
     12.8.1 Stylistic facts versus linguistic facts 512
     12.8.2 Reader's response 512
     12.8.3 The absence of the reader 512
     12.8.4 The responses 513
     12.8.5 The superreader 513
     12.8.6 Comments on Riffaterre's theory 514
12.9 Aspects of style: the context: style as function 514
     12.9.1 Linguistics versus stylistics 514
     12.9.2 Stylistic factors and differentiations 516
     12.9.3 Main features of the basic functional styles of the standard language 518
     12.9.4 Style as foregrounding 519
12.10 Aspects of style: The meaning: Style as meaning potential 520
     12.10.1 Linguisitc stylistics 520
     12.10.2 Hallidayan analysis 522
12.11 Concluding remarks: Linguisitc, literary criticism, and stylistics 526
     12.11.1 Linguistics and stylistics 526
     12.11.2 Linguistic critic 526
     12.11.3 Literary criticism 527
     12.11.4 Stylistics: An area of mediation 528
References 529

Chapter 13. Computational linguisitcs 532
[Hu Zhuanglin] <Peking University>
13.1 What is computational linguistics? 532
13.2 Computer-assisted language learning (CALL) 533
    13.2.1 Definition and activities 533
    13.2.2 Phases of CALL development 534
    13.2.3 Technology 538
13.3 Machine translation 540
    13.3.1 History of development 540
    13.3.2 Research methods 543
    13.3.3 Evaluation of MT and translation tools 545
    13.3.4 MT and the Internet 546
    13.3.5 Speech translation 547
13.3.6 MT and human translation 547
13.4 Corpus linguistics 550
    13.4.1 Definition 550
    13.4.2 Development, categorization and taxonomy 551
    13.4.3 Constructing a corpus 554
    13.4.4 Concordances and corpora 556
13.5 Infromation retrieval 558
    13.5.1 Scope defined 558
    13.5.2 an information retrieval system 559
    13.5.3 Three main areas of research 560
13.6 Internet 562
    13.6.1 Email 563
    13.6.2 News 564
    13.6.3 Newsgroup and chatroom 565
13.7 Looking into the future 566
References 567

Chapter 14. Second language acquisition 572
[Wang Chuming] <Guangdong University of Foreign Studies>
14. 1 Introduction 572
14.2 The role of internal mechanisms 573
    14.2.1 The UG approach 573
    14.2.2 UG and SLA 576
    14.2.3 Connectionism and SLA 579
    14.2.4 The information processing approach to SLA 582
    14.2.5 Skehen's information processing framework 584
14.3 The role of native language 587
14.4 Input, interaction and output 592
14.5 Non-language influences 595
14.6 Summary 600
References 600

Chapter 15. Linguistics and second language teaching 605
[Wen Qiufang] <Nanjing University>
15.1 An overview 607
15.2 Stage I (1880-1940): Implict influence 609
    15.2.1 Fancois Gouin's initial attempt 610
    15.2.2 Henry Sweet's linguistic approach 612
    15.2.3 Harold Palmer as Father of British applied linguistics 613
    15.2.4 Summary 614
15.3 Stage II (1940-1960): Positive and powerful 614
    15.3.1 The army method in the wartime 614
    15.3.2 The audiolingual method 616
    15.3.3 Contrastive analysis 617
    15.3.4 Summary 618
15.4 Stage III (1960-1970): Negative but powerful 619
    15.4.1 TG grammar as a liberating force in L2 teaching 619
    15.4.2 The cognitive approach 621
    15.4.3 Error analysis 624
    15.4.4 Summary 624
15.5 Stage IV (1970-1980): Inconsistent 625
    15.5.1 The communicative approach 625
    15.5.2 The natural approach 628
    15.5.3 Diversification in teaching methods 630
    15.5.4 Summary 634
15.6 Stage V (1980-2000): Complex 634
    15.6.1 Changes in the filed of applied linguistics 635
    15.6.2 An enlightened eclectic approach proposed by Douglas Brown 639
    15.6.3 A balanced approach by Peter Skehan 646
    15.6.4 Summary 656
References 657

Chapter 16. Modern theories and schools of linguistics 661
[Feng Zhongxin] <Qinghua University>
16.1 The beginning of modern linguistics 661
    16.1.1 Introduction 661
    16.1.2 Sources of Saussure's ideas 662
    16.1.3 Saussure's theorizing 666
    16.1.4 Saussure's legacy 670
    16.1.5 Conclusion 671
16.2 The Prague School and the Copenhagen School 672
    16.2.1 The Prague School 672
    16.2.2 The Copenhagen School 681
16.3 The London School 683
    16.3.1 Malinowski 684
    16.3.2 Firth 686
    16.3.3 Halliday and Systemic-functional grammar 692
    16.3.4 Conclusion 707
16.4 American Structuralism 708
    16.4.1 Early period: Boas and Sapir 708
    16.4.2 Bloomfield's theory 712
    16.4.3 Post-Bloomfieldian linguisitcs 715
    16.4.4 Conclusion 718
16.5 Transformational-Generative Grammar 719
    16.5.1 The innateness hypothesis 721
    16.5.2 What is a generative grammar? 724
    16.5.3 The classical theory 725
    16.5.4 The standard theory 731
    16.5.5 The extended standard theory 734
    16.5.6 Later theories 736
    16.5.7 Conclusion 738
16.6 Other theories: Revisionists or rebels? 740
    16.6.1 Stratificational grammar 740
    16.6.2 Case grammar 742
    16.6.3 Generative semantics 744
    16.6.4 Relational grammar 746
16.7 Concluding remarks 749
References 750

Index 754

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