I. A time line of Joseph Henry

1. In 1797, Joseph Henry was born to Scottish immigrants in Albany, New York.
2. In 1805, when young Henry was eight, his father died, and financial circumstances forced his mother send Henry to live with his grandmother in Galway, New York.
3. In 1811, Joseph Henry was fourteen, he moved back to work a day job and attend night school at the Albany Academy, a boys’ school.
4. In 1815, after graduating from Albany Academy, Henry spent several years working as a tutor, then a canal surveyor, and eventually as an engineer for canal construction.
5. In the summer of 1815, Henry invented his own Electro-magnetic.
6. In the early 1830s Princeton University offered Henry the chair of natural philosophy, which Henry accepted.
7. In 1833, Henry met Benjamin Franklin, the man who surpassed him, and they became good friends.
8. In the late 1840s, he accepted the position of Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, where he continued to promote what he called basic research.
9. In 1846, he was professor of natural philosophy (physics) at the College of New Jersey (now known as Princeton University).
10. At the December 3, 1846, meeting of the Board of Regents, Henry was Elected Secretary, with seven of the twelve votes cast.
11. In 1878, Joseph Henry died.

II. Some interesting things about Joseph Henry's life and work

When Henry was inventing the Electro-magnet, he claimed that he did not pursue practical applications for the Electro-magnet because:

"I freely renounced all right to the invention as I consider the machine in the present state of the science a philosophical toy.”

Later in his life, when ask why he didn't patent the Electro-magnet, Henry replied:

"I did not then consider it compatible with the dignity of science to confine the benefits which might be derived from it to the exclusive use of many individual.”

At the December 3, 1846, meeting of the Board of Regents, Henry was elected Secretary, with seven of the twelve votes cast. Just prior to the vote, the regents had made it clear what sort of person they wanted by passing the following resolution:

      ...that the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution be a man possessing weight of character, and a high grade of talent; and that it is further desirable that he possess eminent scientific and general acquirements; that he be a man capable of advancing science and promoting letters by original research and effort, well qualified to act as a respected channel of communication between the institution and scientific and literary individuals and societies in this foreign countries; and, in a word, a man worthy to represent before the world of science and of letters the institution over with this Board presides.

Science Report #2: History of Space Exploration over the Past Decades
By Stevie Liu/Sept. 2, 1999

the 1950's

1957
October 4, 1957 - Sputnik 1, the first man-made object to orbit the Earth, is launched by the U.S.S.R., and remains in orbit until January 4, 1958.
November 3, 1957 - Sputnik 2, carrying the dog Laika for 7 days in orbit, is launched by the U.S.S.R., and remains in orbit until April 13, 1958.

1958
January 31, 1958 - Explorer 1, the first U.S. satellite in orbit, lifts off at Cape Canaveral using a modified ABMA-JPL Jupiter-C rocket. It carries a scientific experiment of James A. Van Allen, and discovers the Earth's radiation belt.
March 5, 1958 - Explorer 2 is launched by a Jupiter-C rocket, and fails to reach orbit.
March 17, 1958 - The Vanguard 1 satellite is launched into orbit, and continues to transmit signals for three years.
May 15, 1958 - Sputnik 3 is launched by the U.S.S.R.
October 1, 1958 - NASA is founded, taking over existing National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics.
October 11, 1958 - Pioneer 1, U.S. - IGY space probe, launched to a height of 70,700 miles.
History of Space Exploration:

1959
January 2, 1959 - Luna 1 , first man-made satellite to orbit the sun, is launched by the U.S.S.R.
March 3, 1959 - Pioneer 4, fourth U.S.-IGY space probe is launched by a Juno II rocket, and achieves an earth-moon trajectory, passing within 37,000 miles of the moon. It then falls into a solar orbit, becoming the first U.S. sun orbiter.
September 12, 1959 - Luna 2 is launched, impacting the moon on September 13 carrying a copy of the Soviet coat of arms, and becoming the first man-made object to hit the moon.
October 4, 1959 - Luna 3 translunar satellite is launched, orbiting the moon and photographing 70 percent of the far side of the moon.

The 1960's

1960
April 1, 1960 - Tiros 1, the first successful weather satellite, is launched by the United States.
August 18, 1960 - Discoverer XIV launches the first U.S. camera-equipped Corona spy satellite.

1961
April 12, 1961 - Vostok 1 is launched by the U.S.S.R., carrying cosmonaut Yuri A. Gagarin, the first man in space. He orbits the Earth once.
May 5, 1961 - Mercury Freedom 7 carries Alan B. Shepard, Jr., the first U.S. astronaut in space, in a suborbital flight.
August 6, 1961 - Vostok 2 is launched by the U.S.S.R., carrying cosmonaut Gherman Titov, the first daylong Soviet space flight.

1962
February 20, 1962 - Mercury Friendship 7 lifts off with John H. Glenn, Jr., the first American in orbit, and orbits the Earth three times.
May 24, 1962 - Mercury Aurora 7 is launched with M. Scott Carpenter, making three orbits.
July 10, 1962 - Telstar 1, U.S. satellite, beams the first live transatlantic telecast.
December 14, 1962 - U.S. Mariner 2, the first successful planetary spacecraft, flies past Venus and enters a solar orbit.

1963
June 16, 1963 - Vostok 6 carries Soviet cosmonaut Valentina Tereshkova, the first woman in space, and orbits the Earth 48 times.
June, 1963 - Martin Schmidt interprets the behavior of 3C 273, the first known quasar.

1964
July 31, 1964 - U.S. Ranger 7 relays the first close range photographs of the moon.

1965
March 18, 1965 - The first space walk is made from Soviet Voskhod 2 by cosmonaut Alexei A. Leonov. The duration is 12 minutes.
March 23, 1965 - First manned flight of the Gemini program is launched, Gemini 3 carrying Virgil I. Grissom and John W. Young. It made three orbits around the earth.
March 24, 1965 - Ranger 9 transmits high quality images of the moon, many of which were shown live in the first television spectacular about the moon.
June 3, 1965 - Edward White II makes the first U.S. space walk from Gemini 4. The duration is 22 minutes.
July 14, 1965 - U.S. Mariner 4 returns the first close-range images of Mars.
November 16, 1965 - Soviet Venus 3 is launched, becoming the first craft to impact Venus on March 1, 1966.
December 4, 1965 - Gemini 7 is launched carrying Frank Borman and James A. Lovell, Jr., making 206 orbits around Earth and proving a trip to the moon possible.
December 15, 1965 - American astronauts Walter Schirra, Jr. and Thomas Stafford make the first space rendezvous with Gemini 7 in Gemini 6 .

1966
February 3, 1966 - Soviet Luna 9 becomes the first spacecraft to soft-land on the moon.
March 1, 1966 - Soviet Venera 3 impacts Venus becoming the first spacecraft to reach another planet. It fails to return data.
March, 1966 - Soviet Luna 10 is the first spacecraft to orbit the moon.
June 2, 1966 - Surveyor 1 is the first U.S. spacecraft to soft-land on the moon.
August 14, 1966 - U.S. Lunar Orbiter 1 enters the moon's orbit and takes the first picture of the Earth from the moon.

1967
April 23, 1967 - Soviet Soyuz 1 is launched, carrying Vladimir M. Komarov. It crashed on April 24, killing Komarov and making him the first spaceflight fatality.
October 18, 1967 - Venera 4 sends a descent capsule into the Venusian atmosphere, returning data about its composition.

1968
September 15, 1968 - The Soviet Zond 5 is launched. It becomes first spacecraft to orbit the moon and return.
October 11, 1968 - Apollo 7 lifts off. It is the first manned Apollo mission, carrying Walter M. Schirra, Jr., Donn F. Eisele, and Walter Cunningham. It orbits the earth once.
December 21, 1968 - Apollo 8 is launched with Frank Borman, James A. Lovell, Jr. and William A. Anders. It is the first Apollo mission to use the Saturn V rocket, and the first manned spacecraft to orbit the moon, making 10 orbits on its six-day mission.

1969
January, 1969 - Soyuz 4 & 5 perform the first Soviet spaceship docking, transferring cosmonauts between vehicles.
July 20, 1969 - Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin, Jr. make the first manned soft landing on the moon, and the first moonwalk, on the Apollo 11 mission.
July 31, 1969 - Mariner 6 returns high resolution images of the martian surface, concentrating on the equatorial region.
August 5, 1969 - Mariner 7 returns high resolution images of the Martian surface, concentrating on the southern hemisphere.

the 1970's

1970
April 11, 1970 - Apollo 13 is launched, suffering an explosion in its SM oxygen tanks. Its moon landing is aborted, and the crew, James A. Lovell, Jr., John L. Swigert, Jr. and Fred W. Haise, Jr., returns safely.
September 12, 1970 - Soviet Luna 16 is launched, conducting the first successful return of lunar soil samples by an automatic spacecraft.
November 17, 1970 - Luna 17 lands on the moon with the first automatic robot, Lunokhod 1. It traveled over the moon's surface for 11 days, driven by a five-man team on Earth.
December 15, 1970 - The Soviet Venera 7 is the first probe to soft-land on Venus, transmitting for 23 minutes.

1971
April 19, 1971 - The Salyut 1 space station is launched by the U.S.S.R. It remains in orbit until May 28, 1973.
May 30, 1971 - The United States launches Mariner 9, which becomes the first spacecraft to survey Mars from orbit.
June 6, 1971 - Soyuz 11 carries cosmonauts G.T. Dobrovolsky, V.N. Volkov, and V.I. Patsayev to Salyut 1, the first manned occupancy of an orbital station. However, on June 29, he cosmonauts died upon Soyuz 11's reentry.
July 30, 1971 - Apollo 15 astronauts David Scott and James Irwin drive the first moon rover. The next year, Apollo 17 astronaut Harrison Schmitt drives a similar rover.
November 13, 1971 - American Mariner 9 (launched May 30, 1971) is the first spacecraft to orbit another planet, Mars. Over the next year, it maps 100 percent of the martian surface.

1972
March 2, 1972 - Pioneer 10 is launched on an Atlas/Centaur/TE364-4 rocket towards Jupiter by the U.S., designed to familiarize alien life with humans. It returns the first close-up images of Jupiter in 1973.
July 15, 1972 - Pioneer 10 becomes the first man-made object to travel through the asteroid belt.
December, 1972 - Scientists designate Cygnus X-1 as the first probable black hole.

1973
April 5, 1973 - Pioneer 11 is launched on an Atlas/Centaur/TE364-4 rocket, flying past Jupiter in 1974, and Saturn in 1979, where it discovers new rings.
May 14, 1973 - Skylab Workshop is launched by the United States, and maintained by three crews.
May 25, 1973 - The United States launches Skylab 2, carrying the first crew to visit Skylab. It repairs damage incurred by Skylab during its launch.
November 3, 1973 - American Mariner 10 is launched to conduct the first dual-planet mission. Over the next year, it returns photographs of Venus and Mercury.

1974
May 17, 1974 - NASA launches the first Synchronous Meteorological Satellite, SMS-1.
June 24, 1974 - Salyut 3, the first Soviet military space station, is launched. It remains in orbit until January 1975.
December 26, 1974 - Soviet Salyut 4, a civilian space station, is launched. It remains in orbit until February 2, 1977.

1975
July, 1975 - American Apollo 18 and Soviet Soyuz 19 dock, performing the first international spacecraft rendezvous.
October, 1975 - Soviet Venera 9 and 10 send the first pictures of the Venusian surface to Earth.

1976
June 22, 1976 - Soviet military space station Salyut 5 is launched, remaining in orbit until August 8, 1977.
July 20, 1976 - Pictures of the martian surface are taken by Viking 1. This mission is the first U.S. attempt to soft land a spacecraft on another planet.
September 3, 1976 - Viking 2 lands on Mars at the Plain of Utopia, where it discovers water frost.

1977
August-September, 1977 - Voyagers 1 and 2 leave Earth to arrive at Jupiter in 1979 and Saturn in 1980.
September 29, 1977 - Soviet Salyut 6 space station is launched. Its crews include members from Czechoslovakia, Poland, GDR, Bulgaria, Hungary, Vietnam, Cuba, Mongolia, and Romania.

1978
November, 1978 - The Einstein Observatory begins its 30-day mission.
December, 1978 - Two Pioneer spacecraft reach Venus. One drops four probes into the atmosphere, while the other maps the surface.

1979
September 1, 1979 - Pioneer 11 reaches Saturn, flying within 13,000 miles and taking the first close-up photographs.

the 1980's

1981
April 12, 1981 - The first manned mission of the Space Transportation System (STS-1), Columbia, is launched.
June 19, 1981 - The European Space Agency (ESA) launches its third Ariane rocket.
December 20, 1981 - The ESA launches a fourth Ariane rocket.

1982
March 1, 1982 - Venera 13 lands on Venus and provides the first Venusian soil analysis.
April 19, 1982 - Soviets launch the Salyut 7 space station.
May 13, 1982 - Soviet cosmonauts Anatoli N. Berezovoi and Valentin V. Lebedev are launched in Soyuz-T 5 to rendezvous with Salyut 7 and become the first team to inhabit the space station. They return to Earth in Soyuz-T 7, setting a new duration record of 211 days.
August, 1982 - Voyager 2 completes its flyby of Saturn .
November 11, 1982 - The space shuttle Columbia begins its fifth mission, its first operational one, and deploys two satellites. Crew: Vance Brand, Robert Overmyer, Joseph Allen, and William Lenoir.

1983
April 4, 1983 - The space shuttle Challenger lifts off for its first mission (STS-6) and performs the first American space walk in nine years. Crew: Paul Weitz, Karol Bobko, Donald Peterson, and Story Musgrave.
June 19, 1983 - Sally K. Ride becomes the first U.S. woman to travel in space, on Challenger mission STS-7.
October 10, 1983 - Soviet Venera 15 returns the first high resolution images of the Venus polar area and compiles a thermal map of most of the northern hemisphere.
November 28, 1983 - The space shuttle Columbia carries the ESA Spacelab 1 into orbit (STS-9). Its crew includes Ulf Merbold, a German and the first ESA member in space.
January-November, 1983 - The Infrared Astronomical Satellite finds new comets, asteroids, galaxies, and a dust ring around the star Vega that may be new planets.

1984
February 3, 1984 - Bruce McCandless takes the first untethered space walk using a manned maneuvering unit from the space shuttle Challenger (STS-41B).
August 30, 1984 - The third space shuttle, Discovery, lifts off on its maiden voyage (STS-41D). Crew: Henry W. Hartsfield, Michael L. Coats, Richard Mullane, Steven Hawley, Judith A. Resnik, and Charles D . Walker.
October, 1984 - Salyut 7's cosmonauts L. D. Kizim, V. A. Solovyov, and O. Y. Atkov spend 237 consecutive days in space, setting a new record. They arrive at Salyut 7 in Soyuz-T 10 and depart in Soyuz-T 11
December, 1984 - Soviet/International Vega 1 & 2 are launched, dropping probes into Venus' atmosphere before continuing to Halley's Comet.

1985
January 8, 1985 - The Sakigake probe is launched by Japan's Institute of Space and Aeronautical Science, becoming the first interplanetary probe as it rendezvoused with Halley's Comet.
April 29, 1985 - The Challenger carries the ESA Spacelab-3 into orbit (STS-51B).
July 2, 1985 - The European Space Agency launches the Giotto spacecraft from an Ariane rocket.
It encounters Halley's Comet in 1986 and Comet P/Grigg-Skjellerup in 1992.
October 3, 1985 - The fourth space shuttle Atlantis takes off on its first mission (STS-51J). Crew: Karol J. Bobko, Ronald J. Grabe, Robert A . Stewart, David C. Hilmers, and William A. Pailes.
October 1985 - Spacelab D1 is flown in the first joint German/ESA mission. Its crew consists of two German DARA astronauts, and Danish Wubbo Ockels of the ESA.

1986
January, 1986 - Voyager 2 flies past Uranus.
January 28, 1986 - The space shuttle Challenger explodes shortly after liftoff of mission STS-51L.
February 20, 1986 - The core unit of Soviet space station Mir is launched.
March, 1986 - Spacecraft from the U.S.S.R, Japan, and Western Europe fly past Halley's Comet on its 30th recorded appearance.
March, 1986 - Astronomers discover an invisible gravity source that splits a quasar's light.
April, 1986 - Astronomers find that our galaxy is smaller than they thought, and that the Sun is 23,000 light-years from its center.

1987
February 25, 1987 - Supernova 1987A blazes into view.
December 1987 - Cosmonaut Yuri V. Romanenko returns from space station Mir, having arrived there from Soyuz-TM 2 , and sets a new space endurance record of 326 days.

1989
May 4, 1989 - Space shuttle Atlantis is launched (STS-30) and later deploys the spacecraft                           Magellan.
July 12, 1989 - Soviet/International Phobos 2 launched. It orbits Mars to study its surface, atmosphere and magnetic field.
October 18, 1989 - U.S. launches the Galileo spacecraft from space shuttle Atlantis flight STS-34, which took infrared images of Venus and the asteroid Ida before continuing to Jupiter.

the 1990's

1990
April 5, 1990 - U.S. Pegasus rocket is deployed from a B-52 bomber, and launches the Pegsat satellite. This is the first demonstration of the Pegasus launch vehicle.
April 24, 1990 - Space shuttle Discovery embarks on mission STS-31, deploying the Edwin P. Hubble Space Telescope (HST) astronomical observatory.
August, 1990 - U.S. spacecraft Magellan arrives at Venus and takes radar images of the surface for one year.
October 6, 1990 - Space shuttle Discovery (STS-41) launches the Ulysses spacecraft with two upper stages. Ulysses flies toward Jupiter, to be slingshot towards the sun and obtain data from high solar latitudes.

1991
June 5, 1991 - Space shuttle Columbia (STS-40) carries the Spacelab SLS 1 into orbit, to conduct investigations into the effects of weightlessness on humans.

1992
February 8, 1992 - Spacecraft Ulysses flies around Jupiter on its way to the sun.
May 2, 1992 - Space shuttle Endeavour lifts off on its first mission, STS-49, repairing the Intelsat VI (F-3) satellite. Crew: Daniel C. Brandenstein, Kevin P. Chilton, Richard J. Hieb, Bruce E. Melnick, Pierre J. Thuot, Kathryn C. Thornton, and Thomas D. Akers.

1993
December 2, 1993 - Space shuttle Endeavour launches on STS-61, making the first on-orbit service of the Hubble Space Telescope (HST).

1994
January 25, 1994 - The United States launches Clementine, a new Department of Defense satellite. It performs a lunar mapping mission using advanced ballistic missile defense technologies. It suffers a malfunction on May 10, 1994, ending its mission.
February, 1994 - Russian cosmonaut Sergei Krikalev flies on board the U.S. space shuttle Discovery (STS-60) in the first joint U.S./Russian space shuttle mission.
September 13, 1994 – Spacecraft Ulysses reaches a maximum southern latitude of 80.2 degrees at the sun, proceeding towards the northern latitudes and maintaining an orbital period of six years.
October 12, 1994 - Spacecraft Magellan enters the atmosphere of Venus. It burns up following the completion of its mapping mission.
December 9, 1994 - Asteroid XM1 passes within 65,000 miles of Earth.

1995
February 6, 1995 - Space shuttle Discovery maneuvers to within 37 feet of Russian space station Mir in preparation for a shuttle- Mir docking (STS-63). This is the first shuttle mission to be flown by a female pilot, Eileen M. Collins.
March 22, 1995 - Cosmonaut Valeri Polyakov returns to Earth after a 438-day mission aboard Russian space station Mir, setting a new space endurance record.
June 26, 1995 - Space shuttle Atlantis rendezvouses with Russian space station Mir during a 10-day mission on STS-71. Cosmonauts are transferred to and from Atlantis. Astronaut Norman Thagard returns from Mir, having arrived on Soyuz-TM 21, and making a new American space endurance record of 115 days.
August 3, 1995 - The Russian Interball-1 tail probe is successfully launched. This is the first of two parts to the mission set to study various plasma processes in the Earth's magnetosphere.
September 1995 - Pioneer 11 ceases making scientific observations, its power source nearly depleted.
November 12, 1995 - Space shuttle Atlantis lifts off on mission STS-74, making the second docking with Russian space station Mir. It delivers two solar arrays and a docking module for future shuttle dockings.
December 7, 1995 - The Galileo spacecraft arrives at Jupiter. It orbits the planet, dropping a probe into the atmosphere and putting a satellite into orbit. The satellite spends the next two years orbiting Jupiter.

1996
February 8, 1996 - Thomas Reiter becomes the first European Space Agency astronaut to make two space walks (both from the Russian Mir space station). His previous space walk was on October 21, 1995, and lasted 5 hours 11 minutes.
February 17, 1996 - NASA launches the first in the Discovery series of spacecraft, the Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous (NEAR) spacecraft, aboard a Delta II-7925-8 rocket.
March 22, 1996 - Space shuttle Atlantis lifts off on STS-76, performing the third docking with Space Station Mir. Astronaut Shannon Lucid was left on Mir, becoming the first female astronaut to crew a space station.
April 26, 1996 - The Piroda module, the last component of the Mir space station, docks at the Mir complex. It is repositioned the following day.
June 4, 1996 - The ESA's Ariane 5 launch fails. This is the launcher's first test flight.
August 29, 1996 - Canada launches the Ultra-Violet Auroral Imager (UVAI) instrument aboard the Russian Interball-2 spacecraft. The project had been postponed several times over nine years because of budgetary problems caused by the collapse of the former Soviet Union.
September 26, 1996 - Space shuttle Atlantis touches down after mission STS-79. It brings back Shannon Lucid, who sets a new record to become the U.S. astronaut and the female astronaut to spend the longest time in space.
September 30, 1996 - The ESA terminates the International Ultraviolet Explorer (IUE) satellite mission. Originally scheduled to be in space for only three years, it had been performing astrophysical studies since its launch in 1978.
November 7, 1996 - U.S. launches the Mars Global Surveyor after not having researched Mars for 20 years. The Surveyor is designed to collect data on Mars' surface features, atmosphere and magnetic properties.

1997
July 4, 1997 - The Mars Pathfinder arrives at Mars, photographing the planet. The data collected encourages scientists to believe the planet may once have harbored life. The planet is much more like Earth than previously suspected.
October 15, 1997 - The seven-year Cassini mission to Saturn begins, carrying with it the ESA's Huygens probe and a high-gain antenna provided by the Italian Space Agency, ASI.
October 30, 1997 - The ESA's Ariane 5 successfully lifts off from the Guiana Space Centre in Kourou, French Guiana.
November 12, 1997 - Sirius 2, the largest European-built telecommunications satellite, is launched by Ariane 4. It is jointly owned by the Swedish Space Corporation and Tele Danmark.
November 20, 1997 - The space shuttle Columbia is launched, carrying the Japanese astronaut Takao Doi. Five days later, Doi performs the first space walk by a Japanese astronaut.
December 1997 - Galileo completes its primary mission. It continues on a two-year extended mission concentrating on Jupiter's moon Europa and concluding with two flybys of its moon Io.
December 5, 1997 - The space shuttle Columbia concludes its 16-day mission to test equipment to be used in the assembly of the International Space Station. It also retrieves the Spartan 201 solar satellite that deployed improperly three days earlier.

1998
January 6, 1998 - The Lunar Prospector is launched to survey the moon's surface. It returns data which suggests there are anywhere from one billion to ten billion tons of ice crystals in the moon's polar craters. This increases possibilities for future colonization.
October 24, 1998 - The United States launches Deep Space 1. It is the first mission of the New Millennium Program, which will test new technologies and potentially lower the risk of technological problems during future space missions.
October 29, 1998 - John Glenn, 77, returns to space aboard the space shuttle Discovery as part of a study on the effects of space travel on the human body and the aging process. He becomes the oldest person to travel in space. Also aboard is Pedro Duque, the first Spanish astronaut and a member of the ESA.
November 20, 1998 - The Russian space module Zarya is launched. It is the first step in the construction of the International Space Station, the largest cooperative space venture in history.
December 10, 1998 - The first assembly mission between the space shuttle Endeavour and the Unity connecting node takes place. American astronauts Jerry Ross and James Newman perform three space walks totaling 21 hours and 22 minutes to complete the assembly.
December 10, 1998 - The Swedish microsatellite Astrid-2 is launched from Plesetsk, Russia. It is the second satellite of the Astrid program to study the auroral regions of the Earth, the first having launched on January 24, 1995.
December 21, 1998 - NASA announces the Chandra X-Ray Observatory will travel into space aboard the space shuttle Columbia, making it one of the largest objects put into space by the shuttle. It will help scientists understand the structure and evolution of the universe.

1999
January 3, 1999 - The Mars Polar Lander takes off from Cape Canaveral on its way to become the first spacecraft to land near the edge of Mars' southern polar cap. It is part of the Deep Space 2 mission to determine if life does or ever did exist on Mars.
February 3, 1999 - The ESA's orbiting solar observatory SOHO resumes work after losing power to its three gyroscopes and falling into self-protection mode on December 21, 1998. This is the first time a spacecraft using gyroscopes has proceeded working without them.
February 7, 1999 - The first U.S. mission solely devoted to a comet, Stardust, takes off. Its intent is to return with comet dust and volatile samples.
February 18, 1999 - Voyager 1 surpasses Pioneer 10 to become the man-made object to travel the furthest from Earth. It carries recorded sounds of a mother's kiss and greetings in 55 languages. It has been in space for approximately 22 years.
February 23, 1999 - Sunsat-1, South Africa's first space vehicle, is launched into orbit. It was designed and built almost solely by graduate students from the University of Stellenbosch.
April 16, 1999 - NASA launches Landsat-7. It will locate urban "hot spots" that may alter local climates, and monitor the effects from deforestation in Central American rain forests.
May 27, 1999 - The space shuttle Discovery mission STS-96 launches successfully to become the first mission to dock to the International Space Station.

References

Science Report #3: Main Cosmonauts
By Stevie Liu/Sept. 2, 1999

Yuri Gagarin: Vostok 1
Alexei Leonov: Voskhod 2, Soyuz 19 (ASTP)
Oleg G. Makarov: Soyuz 12, Soyuz 18-1, Soyuz 27, Soyuz-T3
Svetlana Savitskaya: Soyuz T-7, Soyuz T-12
Valentina Tereshkova: Vostok 6
Gherman Titov: Vostok 2
Capt. Charles "Pete" Conrad, Jr. (Ret.):  Gemini 5 & 11, Apollo 12, Skylab 2
B. Gen. Charles M. Duke, Jr. (Ret.): Apollo 16
Capt. Edgar D. Mitchell (Ret.): Apollo 14
Col. Alfred M. Worden (Ret.): Apollo 15

Yuri Gagarin
Missions: Vostok 1

    On April 14, 1961, the Soviets cheered and celebrated, parading through Moscow's Red Square. They gathered around the Lenin Mausoleum to see Premier Nikita Krushchev congratulate Yuri Gagarin on a job well done. Two days earlier aboard Vostok 1, Gagarin lifted off from the Baikonur Cosmodrome to become the world's first person in space.
    Gagarin was born the son of a carpenter on March 9, 1934. He grew up on a collective farm in Saratov, part of the Volga region west of Moscow, later renamed Gagarin City. He attended a local school for six years and then continued his education at vocational and technical schools.
    Gagarin began cosmonaut training after graduating with honors from the Soviet Air Force in 1957. He was one of 20 fighter pilots chosen to be a part of the first group of cosmonauts. In 1959, these men underwent intense medical examination and preparation for travel into the unknown. However, it would be Gagarin who the Soviets dubbed the "Columbus of the Cosmos."
    Gagarin took a bus to the launch pad on the morning of April 12. He was accompanied by his backup, Gherman Titov, who would later become the first person to spend over 24 hours in space.
    Vostok 1 was launched using a six-engine rocket that exerted 20 million horsepower of boost. The flight lasted 108 minutes. Gagarin reached a height of 327 km above Earth.
    Gagarin became the first person to orbit the Earth, traveling at a speed of 27,400 km/hr. Once in orbit, he had no control over the spacecraft. Radio signals sent to the capsule by a computer program guided its reentry. In case of emergency, Gagarin was supplied with a key sealed in an envelope that would override the computer program. Gagarin's trip concluded when he reentered the Earth's atmosphere, ejecting from the capsule and parachuting to the ground near the village of
Smelovka in the Seratov region of the U.S.S.R. Official details were not released until May 30 when an application was issued to the International Aeronautical Federation (FAI) to make the flight a world record. Gagarin's parachute departure from Vostok was concealed much longer because the FAI required the pilot to return in his craft in order to set a record. However, the mission's overall success was announced by the U.S.S.R. the very day of the flight. It came one month before American astronaut Alan Shepard's suborbital flight, and ten months before astronaut John Glenn became the first American to orbit Earth.
    The Soviets were later criticized by Turkish newsmen who said that the footage of Gagarin's mission was mostly from the flight's aftermath and featured Krushchev too prominently. Not only were few details released in the film or by the Soviets in official reports, but even the identities of
program managers and engineers were closely guarded secrets.
    However, what people did know was that no one, including the Soviets, had the technology at that time to send a man to the moon. Gagarin's success prompted U.S. President John Kennedy to set a goal for the United States to be the first country to reach the moon. When he announced this goal, the total time spent by an American in space was barely 15 minutes.
    Gagarin only made one trip into space. He died on March 27, 1968 when the MiG-15 plane he was flying crashed near Moscow. He had a wife, Valentina Gagarin, and two daughters, Yelena and Galya.
   Statues commemorating Gagarin have been erected in his hometown, and in Moscow in the Yuri Gagarin Square, at the intersection of Leninskiy Avenue and "60 years of Great October Revolution Street." He has also been honored by having a crater on the moon named for him.

Alexei Leonov
Missions: Voskhod 2, Soyuz 19 (ASTP)

   A man walked in space for the first time on March 18, 1965. Aleksei Leonov floated out of Voskhod 2, secured to the spacecraft by only a safety line. He pushed off of the craft and let himself drift 17.5 feet away before reeling himself back in. Fortunately, he also managed to reenter the craft and return home to tell everyone about it.
   During Leonov's first of two extravehicular activities, or EVAs, his spacesuit became stiff causing him difficulties in reentering the spacecraft. He was only supposed to spend a few minutes in space, but instead remained there for 24 minutes while he let some of the vital air out of the
suit to fit back through the inflatable airlock capsule.
   The altercations did not stop there. The craft and crew suffered further problems securing the hatch. As a result, the environmental control system flooded the cabin with oxygen, creating a fire hazard. Then the service module did not separate properly upon reentering the Earth's atmosphere,
causing the craft to thrash about until the wires burned through. The crew landed in the Ural Mountains where they remained all night, surrounded by wolves, until a rescue crew found them the next day.
   Leonov was the eleventh cosmonaut in Soviet space history and the fifteenth person in space. He was selected to be a cosmonaut on March 7, 1960 as one of the original twenty young men to go through space training.
   Much like many of his peers, Leonov was a fighter pilot before becoming a cosmonaut. He graduated with honors from Chuguyev Higher Air Force School in 1957. He then joined the Soviet Air Force units as a fighter pilot, becoming an expert parachutist and instructor of military air forces for paratroop training.
   It was not until after the Voskhod mission that Leonov attended N.E. Zhukovskiy Air Force Engineering Academy, graduating in 1968. He had obtained his Candidate of Technical Sciences degree in 1967.
   Leonov's next several assignments after the Voskhod 2 mission did not bring him back to space. He was assigned to a secret Soviet lunar project that was canceled. He was put on the flight crew of Soyuz 11, but a few days before launch another crew member suffered a medical problem, and the backup crew was sent instead. All three backup crew members died tragically due to a malfunction during reentry. The flight Leonov had been reassigned to, Soyuz 12a, was canceled on January 8, 1971 because of the deaths of the Soyuz 11 crew members. The next time he was assigned as a part of the primary crew (Soyuz 12b) it was canceled yet again because of the in-orbit failure of Cosmos 557.
   Leonov did not reenter space again until the Soyuz 19 mission to rendezvous with the Apollo spacecraft. He was commander of the flight. It lifted off on July 15, 1975 and lasted 5.94 days. While in space, Leonov sketched pictures, including one of American astronaut Thomas Stafford,
using a set of colored pencils he attached to his wrist with a makeshift bracelet.
   The Soyuz and Apollo crafts separated after approximately two days. The Soyuz craft was recovered on July 21, 9.6 km away from its target point.
   Leonov was promoted to Major General following the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project. Later in his career he became the Deputy Director of the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center. As of June 1999, he was the Chief of the International Detachment, training guest cosmonauts for space travel.
   Leonov has been married to his wife, Svetlana Pavlovna, since before his first space flight. They have two children, Viktoriya and Oksana.

Oleg G. Makarov
Missions: Soyuz 12, Soyuz 18-1, Soyuz 27, Soyuz-T3

   Makarov joined the Soviet space program in 1964, and helped design the Soyuz spacecraft until he was chosen by the November 1966 Engineer cosmonaut selection group. In 1967, he was assigned to the lunar training group, with which he was involved until 1969, when he began to train as a Salyut crewman.
   He served as flight engineer for four Soviet space flights between 1973 and 1980, including two visits to Salyut 6, which he helped design. In 1980 he was a back up for the Soyuz-T 2 crew.
   Makarov's first flight was Soyuz 12 in September 1973, the first Soviet manned mission in the wake of the Soyuz 11 tragedy which killed three cosmonauts during their re-entry. Following the accident the Soyuz command module had been re-designed to allow two cosmonauts to wear pressure suits , if necessary, during launch and re-entry. Weight and volume limitations had made it impossible for Soyuz to carry three cosmonauts with suits, so cosmonauts from Soyuz 1 through 11 had not worn them. Makarov and commander Vasily G. Lazarev returned to Earth safely after only two days.
   On April 5, 1975, Makarov and Lazarev were launched aboard Soyuz 18-1 for a planned 60-day mission aboard space station Salyut 4, which had been occupied for 30 days by cosmonauts Alexei Gubarev and Georgi Grechko. However, only minutes into the flight, separation problems
occurred with the Soyuz SL-4 booster. The Soyuz command module containing Makarov and Lazarev was separated from the booster and plunged back to Earth, eventually coming to rest on a Siberian mountainside near the Chinese border. The emergency re-entry profile forced the cosmonauts to endure as many as 18 Gs, twice the normal load, and may have caused injuries. Certainly Lazarev never flew in space again.
   Makarov did, twice, with better luck. He was aboard Soyuz 27 in January 1978, a week-long flight during which he and commander Vladimir A. Dzhanibekov docked with the Salyut 6 space station, swapping vehicles with the Soyuz 26 crew of Yuri Romanenko and Georgi Grechko, were in the first month of a planned three-month mission. It was a rehearsal for future operations that permitted cosmonauts to remain aboard Salyut stations for missions lasting nine months.
   In November 1980 Makarov returned to Salyut 6 as a member of the Soyuz-T 3 crew. The three-man crew of Makarov, commander Leonid D. Kizim and flight engineer Gennady M. Strekalov overhauled several systems inside Salyut 6 during their 13 days in space, permitting Salyut 6 to be occupied in early 1981 for another long duration mission.
   In 1981 he earned his candidate of technical sciences degree (Ph.D.) from the Moscow Bauman Higher Technical School (now Moscow Bauman State Technical University) and published a futuristic work, The Sails of Stellar Brigantines, written in collaboration with Grigory Nemetsky.

Svetlana Savitskaya
Missions: Soyuz T-7, Soyuz T-12

   Svetlana Savitskaya was able to keep her extracurricular activities a secret from her parents until her father discovered a knife in her school bag – a parachute knife. She had started jumping after being rejected from pilot school when she was 16 years old. She made 450 jumps by her seventeenth birthday in 1965. Her ambitions were high, driven on by her father's legendary experience as a World War II flying ace, the Deputy Commander of the Soviet Air Defenses, and a two-time Hero of the Soviet Union. It was this ambition that would earn her the privilege of being the first woman to walk in space.
   At 18, Savitskaya was old enough to enter the Moscow Aviation Institute (MAI), the premier Soviet aviation engineering school. In 1970, the British press called her "Miss Sensation" when she became World Champion as a member of the Soviet National Aerobatics Team at the world aerobatics competition in Hullavington. She graduated MAI in 1972.
   Savitskaya then pushed her way into test pilot school. While there she set many world records in turbo-prop and supersonic aircraft, including the female record for flying 2683 km/hr in an MiG-21 aircraft. By the time she graduated, she was qualified as a pilot in 20 types of aircraft.
   But not even the Earth's atmosphere could hold Savitskaya down. She was chosen to be part of the cosmonaut 1980 Female Group 2 on July 30 of that year. She became the 53rd cosmonaut, affiliated with Energiya NPO.
   Savitskaya continued putting her name in the record books, becoming the second woman in space on August 19, 1982. Savitskaya and fellow crew members Leonid Popov and Alexander Serebrov flew Soyuz T-7 to dock with the Salyut 7 space station. They conducted experiments and returned the Soyuz T-5 crew to Earth.
   However, it was her second flight aboard Soyuz T-12 for which she is best known. On July 25, 1984, Savitskaya and cosmonaut Vladimir Dzhanibekov performed an EVA to conduct welding experiments with the Salyut 7 space station. The space walk lasted 3.58 hours. It was the first time a woman walked in space.
   The Soyuz T-12 mission was her last trip to space. She was appointed Commander of an all-female crew to Salyut 7 for International Women's Day, but the mission was canceled because of problems with the space station and the limited availability of Soyuz T spacecraft.
   Savitskaya became the Deputy to the Chief Designer at Energiya in 1987, and a member of Parliament in 1989.
   On October 27, 1993, Savitskaya left her work as a cosmonaut. She spent a total of 19.71 days in space throughout her career.
   Savitskaya is married to Viktor Khatkovsky, an engineer and pilot at Ilyushin aircraft design bureau.

Valentina Tereshkova
Missions: Vostok 6

   Valentina Tereshkova parachuted out of over 125 aircraft before she jumped out of the Vostok 6. What began as a hobby led to her selection for cosmonaut training and led to her achievement of becoming the first woman in space.
   Tereshkova was born on March 6, 1937 in Maslennikovo, near Yaroslavl in western Russia. Her father was a tractor driver, and her mother worked in a textile plant. Tereshkova began school at age eight, but withdrew to work in the textile plant at age 16. She continued her education through correspondence courses. During this time, she parachuted as a hobby.
   When Tereshkova was selected for the Soviet space program in 1962, she became the first person to be recruited without experience as a test pilot. Her selection was instead based on her parachuting skills.
   Tereshkova was assigned to be the pilot of the Vostok 6 mission. She was given the radio name "Chaika," Russian for "seagull."
   The Vostok craft lifted off from Tyuratam Launch Center (Baikonur Cosmodrome) on June 16, 1963. It remained in space for nearly three days and orbited the Earth 48 times, once every 88 minutes. Unlike earlier Soviet space flights, Tereshkova was permitted to operate the controls manually.
   The craft reentered the Earth's atmosphere on June 19. Tereshkova parachuted to the ground, as was typical of cosmonauts at that time. She landed approximately 380 miles northeast of Qaraghandy, Kazakhstan, in central Asia.
   It was Tereshkova's only parachute jump from a spacecraft. She ended her career as a cosmonaut after that flight. However, in that one flight she became the first woman in space and the first woman in orbit. It was 19 years until another woman flew in space -- Svetlana Savitskaya, aboard Soyuz-T 7.
   Tereshkova moved on to other things. She became a member of the Communist party and a representative of the Soviet government.
   She also married in November of 1963, to fellow cosmonaut Andrian Nikolayev. The following year the couple had their first and only child, Elena. She was the first child whose parents had both traveled in space.

Gherman Titov
Missions: Vostok 2

   Outer space made Gherman Titov sick. The cosmonaut was excited to have his turn at space flight, after losing out to Yuri Gagarin for the first manned flight. However, once he was sailing far above the Earth aboard Vostok II, he felt nauseous, and not because he had excited butterflies in his stomach.
   Titov was the first person to experience space sickness. Scientists O.G. Gazenko and V.J. Yazolovsky from the Soviet Academy of Sciences reported after the landing that Titov had experienced disorientation, nausea and an irregular heartbeat during his 25 hours and 18 minutes in space. This information concerned Soviet space engineers who began to fear that prolonged weightlessness may effect every human in this way. However, future space missions proved space sickness to be an individual affliction.
   Titov earned some other space records as well. He holds the record for the being the youngest man launched into space, having been 25 years old in 1961. He was the last of four men to make pioneering space flights that year. During his 17 orbits, he also became the first person to spend over 24 hours in space, and the first to sleep in space.
   The Vostok II mission lifted off on August 6, 1961. It had several functions. Primarily, scientists wanted to observe the effects of prolonged weightlessness on a human. Titov used manual controls during this flight, unlike the first flight which was guided by a computer program sending signals from Earth. Titov was also instructed to make meteorological observations and look at Earth landforms.
   Titov was one of the first 20 men chosen for cosmonaut training. He was selected on March 7, 1960. He had been born on September 11, 1935 in Verhnee Zhilino, Russia, and was in the Soviet Air Force when he was picked.
   After the Vostok II mission, Titov was assigned to a dead-end project called the Spiral spaceplane. He never flew in space again. Instead, Titov became a top official in the Soviet military space forces. He also became a member of Russian's lower house of parliament.
   Titov's accomplishments are honored through a moon crater named for him.

Capt. Charles "Pete" Conrad, Jr. (Ret.)
Missions: Gemini 5 & 11, Apollo 12, Skylab 2

   Conrad was selected as an astronaut by NASA in September 1962. In August 1965, he served as pilot on the 8-day Gemini V flight. He and command pilot Gordon Cooper were launched into Earth orbit on August 21, and proceeded to establish a space endurance record of l90 hours and 56 minutes. The flight, which lasted 120 revolutions and covered a total distance of 3,312,993 statute miles, was terminated on August 29, 1965. It was also on this flight that the United States took over the lead in man-hours in space.
   On September 18, 1966, Conrad occupied the command pilot seat for the 3-day Gemini XI mission. He executed orbital maneuvers to rendezvous and dock in less than one orbit with a previously launched Agena and piloted Gemini XI through two periods of extravehicular activity performed by pilot Richard Gordon. Other highlights of the flight included the established new world space altitude record of 850 statute miles and the completion of the first fully automatic controlled re-entry.
   Conrad was spacecraft commander of Apollo 12, November 14-24, 1969. With him on man's second lunar landing mission were Richard Gordon, command module pilot, and Alan Bean, lunar module pilot. In accomplishing all of the mission's objectives, the Apollo 12 crew executed the first precision lunar landing, bringing their lunar module, "Intrepid," to a safe touchdown in the moon's Ocean of Storms. Along with Bean, Conrad spent 7 hours and 45 minutes on the lunar surface performing the first lunar traverse deploying the Apollo Lunar Surface Experiment Package (ALSEP), installing a nuclear power generator station which would provide the power source for long-term scientific experiments, gathering geologic samples of the lunar surface for return to Earth, and completing a close-up inspection of the Surveyor III spacecraft.
   As spacecraft commander on his fourth flight, Conrad flew the first manned Skylab mission which launched on May 25 and terminated on June 22, 1973. With him for the initial activation and 28-day flight qualification operation of Skylab Orbital Workshop were Joseph Kerwin, science-pilot, and Paul Weitz, pilot. Although subjected to a 10-day delay in their planned launch, Conrad, Kerwin and Weitz managed to complete 46 of 55 scheduled experiments and all of the nine programmed subsystem/operation detailed test objectives. Paramount to the completion of these objectives was deployment of a "parasol" thermal shade to alleviate the orbital workshop thermal problem created by loss of the micrometeoroid shield during the launch of the Skylab workshop. Also vital to the mission was a 3-hour and 23- minute extravehicular activity by Conrad and Kerwin to deploy the jammed solar wing. Their success in extending the only remaining solar array system wing assured sufficient power for the conduct of the full 28-day mission and would provide the needed energy to power the subsequent Skylab 2 and Skylab 3 manned missions. In logging 672 hours and 49 minutes each aboard the workshop, the crew established a new world record for a single mission, and Conrad captured the individual endurance record for time in space by bringing his total space flight time to 1,179 hours and 38 minutes. Conrad has also logged 14 hours and 19 minutes in extra-vehicular activities.
   In December 1973, after serving for 20 years (11 of which were as an astronaut in the space
program), Conrad retired from the U. S. Navy to accept a position as Vice President, Operations and Chief Operating Officer of American Television and Communications Corporation (ATC) located in Denver, Colorado. Conrad was also a member of the Board of Directors of ATC. As Vice President, Operations, he was responsible for both the operation of existing systems and the development of new cable television systems throughout the country. On March 1, 1976, he became a Vice President, Commercial Sales International, McDonnell Douglas Corporation, St. Louis, Missouri. In October 1978, he was promoted to Vice President, Marketing, of the Douglas Aircraft Company. In October 1980, Conrad was promoted to Senior Vice President, Marketing, of the Douglas Aircraft Company. Conrad became Staff Vice President for McDonnell Douglas Corporation, St. Louis, Missouri, where he worked on Delta Clipper project SST.
   On Thursday, July 8, 1999, Conrad passed away following a motorcycle accident. He crashed going around a turn near Ojai, California, while riding with friends. Conrad, 69, had been looking forward to becoming 77 years old. He expected NASA would send him back to space as they did with Sen. John Glenn in 1998.

B. Gen. Charles M. Duke, Jr. (Ret.)
Missions: Apollo 16

   Duke was one of 19 astronauts selected by NASA in April 1966. He served as the backup Lunar Module Pilot for the Apollo 13 mission. He served as Lunar Module Pilot for Apollo 16, April 16-27, 1972. He was accompanied on the fifth manned lunar mission by John W. Young (Spacecraft Commander) and Thomas K. Mattingly, II (Command Module Pilot). Apollo 16 was the first scientific expedition to inspect, survey and sample materials and surface features in the Descartes region of the rugged lunar highlands. Duke and Young commenced their lunar surface stay of 71 hours and 14 minutes by maneuvering the Lunar Module Orion to a landing on the relatively smooth Cayley Plains. In three subsequent excursions onto the lunar surface, they each logged 20 hours and 15 minutes in extra-vehicular activities (EVA) involving the emplacement and activation of scientific equipment and experiments, the collection of nearly 213 pounds of rock and soil samples, and the evaluation and use of Rover-2 over the roughest and rockiest surface yet encountered on the moon. Other Apollo 16 achievements include: largest payload placed in lunar orbit (79,109 pounds); first cosmic ray detector deployed on lunar surface; first lunar observatory with the far ultraviolet camera; and longest inflight EVA from a command module during transearth coast (1 hour and 13 minutes). Apollo 16 concluded with a Pacific splashdown and subsequent recovery by the USS Ticonderoga.
   With the completion of his first space flight, General Duke has logged 265 hours and 51 minutes in space, which includes 21 hours and 28 minutes in extravehicular activities.
   Duke also served as the backup lunar module pilot for Apollo 17. In December 1975, Duke retired from NASA to enter private business in San Antonio. He entered the USAF Reserves in 1975 and served as Staff Engineer AFSC and Mobilization Augmentee to Commander AF Basic
Military Training Center and to Commander USAF Recruiting Service. He was promoted to Brigadier general in 1979 and retired in June, 1986.
   From January 1976 - March 1978, Duke was President of the Orbit Corporation. From March 1978 - October 1979, he was a partner in Campbell - Duke investments. From October 1979 to the present, he has been the owner of Duke Investments, and from January 1987 to present, he has been President of Charlie Duke Enterprises, Inc.
   From January 1987 to the present, he has been the Director of The Robbins Company. From November 1990 to the present, he has been the Chairman of Texcor Industries, Inc. From May 1989 to the present, he has been the Directory of the Young Astronaut Council. From January 1989 to the present, he was Chairman of Duke Resources, Inc., and from October 1984 to January 1991 he was Advisory Director to Victoria Bank & Trust, Cibolo, Texas.
   Duke is an active Christian Lay Witness who has spoken at numerous churches and other gatherings. He is President of Duke Ministry for Christ.
   To find out how you can bring this astronaut to one of your special events, check out our bookings page.

Capt. Edgar D. Mitchell (Ret.)
Missions: Apollo 14

   On January 31, 1971, Navy Captain Dr. Edgar Mitchell embarked on a journey of over 500,000 miles in outer space, that resulted in becoming the sixth man to walk on the moon, during Apollo 14. This historic journey ended safely nine days later on February 9, 1971 and was made with two other man of valor - Admiral Alan Shepard and Colonel Stuart Roosa.
   Scientist, test pilot, naval officer, astronaut, entrepreneur, author and lecturer, Dr. Mitchell's extraordinary career personifies humankind's eternal thrust to widen its horizons as well as its inner soul.
   His academic background includes a Bachelor of Science in Industrial Management from Carnegie Mellon University, a Master of Science from the U.S. Navel Postgraduate School and a Doctor of Science in Aeronautics and Astronautics from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In addition he has received honorary doctorates in engineering from New Mexico State University, the University of Akron and Carnegie Mellon.
   Dr Mitchell has been awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the USN Distinguished Service Medal, the NASA Distinguished Medal, and three NASA Group Achievement Awards.
   After retiring from the Navy in 1972, Dr. Mitchell founded the Institute of Noetic Sciences to sponsor research into the nature of consciousness as it relates to cosmology and causality. In 1984 He was a co-founder of the Association of Space Explorers, an international organization of those who have experienced space travel.
   He is the author of Psychic Exploration: A Challenge for Science and dozens of articles in both professional and popular periodicals.
   As a lecturer Dr. Mitchell delivers 25-50 addresses annually, is a frequent guest on radio and television shows, has been featured in several documentary films relative to his interests, and is currently doing research on a number of books.
   To find out how you can bring this astronaut to one of your special events, check out our bookings page.

Col. Alfred M. Worden (Ret.)
Missions: Apollo 15

   Alfred Worden was one of nineteen astronauts selected by NASA in April, 1966. He served on the support crew of Apollo 9, and on the back-up crew of Apollo 12.
   On July 26, 1971, Alfred Worden lifted off in the eighth manned Apollo mission (the fourth manned lunar landing mission), Apollo 15. Worden was Command Module Pilot, with crew mates David R. Scott (Commander) and James B. Irwin (Lunar Module Pilot). Scott and Irwin landed the Lunar Module in the Hadley-Apennine region near the Apennine Mountains, where they performed 3 EVAs of 10 hour, 36 minutes total. Apollo 15 was the first mission to carry orbital sensors in the service module of the Command Module, and the first mission to leave a satellite in lunar orbit. On the return trip to Earth, Worden performed 38 minutes of EVA from the Command
Module to recover film from the Scientific Instrument Module (the first time an SIM was used in lunar orbit, and the first space walk conducted outside Earth's orbit). The Command Module landed on Earth August 7, 1971, after 12 days, 17 hours in space.
   Worden attended United States Military Academy West Point in New York, graduating in 1955 in the upper ten percent of his class. From 1955-1961 he was a Fighter Pilot and Armament Officer with the 95th FIS, Andrews Air Force Base, in Maryland.
   Colonel Worden became the Chief of the Systems Studies Division at the Ames Research Center, California in 1972, which he held until 1975. He worked as a consultant to the Northwood Institute and the State of Florida from 1975-1982. In 1982, he became President of Maris-Worden Aerospace, Inc. In 1990, he became General Manager of Jet Electronics and technology, Inc. and
was promoted to President in 1991. Worden is currently Staff Vice President for the B.F. Goodrich company, Aerospace Division.
   To find out how you can bring this astronaut to one of your special events, check out our bookings page.

References

Science Project #4: Medical Uses of Four Plants
By Stevie Liu, November 15, 1999

Choice 6: Over the years, plants have been used for medicinal purposes by many cultures. Research how some plants were used.
Herbs are important elements in traditional Chinese medicine. Thousands of plants were found to have curing effects. In fact, nearly every plant around us can be used to cure people of their diseases. I have listed four common plants below.

(1) Mei Hua (Clubs):
1. Sore on the head can be cured by nuclei-removed fructus mume, heated and ground, mixed with sesame oil, and scrubbed on the wounded or painful spot.
2. Purulent finger phlegmasia can be cured by nuclei-free fructus mume, levigated with vinegar, and applied to the wound.
3. Struma can be cured by using one egg with a hole through which seven green clubs calyx are put into and sealed up; steam the egg in a steam box, remove the calyx and eat the egg; one egg per day, seven day in running.
4. Diarrhea, anepithymia, and maw worm-leading bellyache can be cured by using 30 grams of green clubs and yellow rice wine in a porcelain mug; steam the clubs with wine 30 minutes in a pot full of water to make a green clubs boiled wine; take 10~30 grams in lukewarm.

(2) Gui Hua (Osmanthus Fragrans Lour)
1. Toothache can be cured by using 60~90 grams of osmanthus roots, equal amount of roadside ginger and cortex lycii radicis; take with decocted or stewed rib meat.

(3) Mei Gui (Roses)
1. Liver peratodynia can be cured by using roses dried in the shade; 6 grams each time, soaked in thermos mug and take as tea.
2. Hepatalgia can be cured by using 3~6 grams of roses, 9 grams of broad bean flower, soaked together and take as tea.
3. Initial poisonous boss can be cured by using stalk-free roses in grounded form; two times per day, 3 grams each time, mix up with nice wine.

(4) Xian Ren Zhang (Cactus)
1. Abdominalgia can be cured by using 30 grams of cactus stem, free of bark and thorns, stewed with 100 grams of beef; drink the soup after eating the beef.
2. Chunk abdominalgia can be cured by using 60~90 grams of cactus stem, free of bark and thorns, cut in tiny bits, stewed with pork and eat them.
3. Parotitis and mastitis can be cured by using cactus stems free of bark and thorn, ground and placed on the pain.
4. Eczema and sore can be cured by using cactus stems properly, dried and powdered, applied to the outer pain.